The main challenge in genome analysis today is to reconstruct the complete genome of an individual.

Sequenced reads lack information about the order and origin (i.e., which part, homolog, and strand of the subject genome) of reads. For example, errors in protein-coding regions can bias the accuracy of protein predictions. The increased error rate of today’s emerging long-read technologies may negatively impact biological interpretations. The magnitude of error rates in data produced by state-of-the-art sequencing platforms varies from ~ 10 −3 for short reads to ~ 15 × 10 −2 for the relatively new long and ultra-long reads. The trade-off for decreased cost and increased throughput offered by modern sequencing technologies is a larger margin of noise in sequencing data.

Contemporary sequencing technologies are capable of generating tens of millions to billions of reads per sample, with read lengths ranging from a few hundred to a few million base pairs. The output of high-throughput sequencing consists of sets of relatively short genomic sequences, usually referred to as reads. Modern high-throughput sequencing techniques are capable of producing millions of nucleotide sequences of an individual’s DNA and providing multifold coverage of whole genomes or particular genomic regions. Recent advances in high-throughput sequencing technologies have enabled cost-effective and time-efficient probing of the DNA sequences of living organisms through a process known as DNA sequencing.

The Human Genome Project cost approximately $3 billion over 13 years to sequence the genome of an individual human. In April 2003, the high-throughput sequencing era started with the Human Genome Project, which led to the successful sequencing of a nearly complete human genome and establishment of a reference genome that is still in use. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material.

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made.

Electrical md kodi 176